:: wikimiki.org ::

Asoka

Asoka

Please see Ashoka (disambiguation) for other uses of the word Ashoka Ashoka the Great (IAST , Devanagari अशोक ) was the emperor of the Mauryan empire from 273 BC to 232 BC. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of South Asia and beyond, from present day Afghanistan to Bengal and as far south as Mysore. An early supporter of Buddhism, Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. The name "Ashoka" translates as 'without sorrow' in Sanskrit. Asoka was the first ruler of ancient Bharatavarsha (India), after the famed Mahabharata rulers, to unify such a vast territory under his empire, which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present-day Republic of India. The British author H. G. Wells wrote of Ashoka: "In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves 'Their Highnesses', 'Their Majesties' and 'Their Exalted Majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day."

Historical Sources

Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit Ashoka Avadana ('Story of Ashoka') and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Asoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (Piyadasi- meaning 'good looking', or 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya. The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Later scholars have tended to question this assessment. The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources- the Ashokan edicts- make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of dhamma (Sanskrit: dharma). Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of dharma as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the Jains, Buddhists, orthodox Brahmanists, and Ajivikas). Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest. Modern scholars and adherants of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths.

Early life

Ashoka was the son of the Mauryan emperor Bindusara by a relatively lower ranked Queen known as Dharma. Ashoka had several elder siblings and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka. Because of his exemplary intellect and warrior skills, he is said to have been the favorite of his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya. According to legend, Ashoka recovered his grandfather's sword after Chandragupta Maurya cast it away before embarking on life as a Jain ascetic.

Rise to power

Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several regiments of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by Bimbasara to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince Susima, the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of Taxila in the north-west province of Sindh, of which Prince Susima was the governor. Taxila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like Indo-Greek population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different militias causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist). militia Ashoka's success made his step-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into Kalinga and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki, with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen. Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in Ujjain. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the Buddha, and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent Vidisha. After recovering, he married her. It was quite unacceptable to Bindusara that one of his sons should marry a Buddhist, so he did not allow Ashoka to stay in Pataliputra, but instead sent him back to Ujjain and made him the governor of Ujjain. The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara died. As the news of the unborn heir to the throne spread, Prince Susima planned the execution of the unborn child; however, the assassin who came to kill Devi and her child killed his mother instead. As the folklore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked Pataliputra (modern day Patna), and beheaded all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. At that stage of his life, many called him Chanda Ashoka meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka. Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, expanding it from the present-day boundaries of Bangladesh and the state of Assam in India in the east to the territory of present-day Iran and Afghanistan in the west; from the Pamir Knots in the north to the almost peninsular part of southern India. At that stage of his life, he was called Chakravartin which literally translates to "he for whom the wheel of law turns" (broadly meaning the emperor). right

Conquest of Kalinga

While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of Orissa. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of Rajdharma, meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and Kshatriya dharma. The pretext for the start of the Kalinga War (265 BC or 263 BC) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this diktat, Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit. The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men and women were deported.

Conversion to Buddhism

As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, "What have I done?" The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt Buddhism and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. From that point Ashoka, who had been described as "the cruel Ashoka" (Chandashoka), started to be described as "the pious Ashoka" (Dharmashoka). He made Vibhajjavada Buddhism his state religion around 260 BC. He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about 250 BC. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. polity.]] Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta (whose name means "friend of the Sangha"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He built thousands of stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of Sanchi are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of nonviolence or ahimsa. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. Wildlife became protected by the king's law against sport hunting and branding. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of vegetarianism. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building universities for study and water transit and irrigation systems for trade and agriculture. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and caste. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies. He is acclaimed for constructing hospitals for animals and renovating major roads throughout India. After this transformation of self, Ashoka came to be known as Dhammashoka (Pāli), meaning Ashoka, the follower of Dharma. Ashoka defined the main principles of dharma (dhamma in Pāli) as nonviolence, tolerance of all sects and opinions, obedience to parents, respect for the Brahmans and other religious teachers and priests, liberality towards friends, humane treatment of servants, and generosity towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object. generosity) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum.]] Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the Seleucid Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom established by Diodotus I, none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both Antiochus I Soter and his successor Antiochus II Theos of the Seleucid dynasty as well as Diodotus I and his son Diodotus II of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his inscriptions and edicts are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the Hellenic world but never in awe of it. The Edicts of Ashoka, which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and Ptolemy III of Egypt. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid Dynasty. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BC. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered. emblem] Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: "All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always." Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan dharma as a "religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire". See also: Edicts of Ashoka

Death and legacy

Emperor Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, and after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but their names are lost to time. Mahinda and Sanghamitta were twins born by his first wife, Devi, in the city of Ujjain. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. Mahinda and Sanghamitta went into Sri Lanka and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him. Some rare records speak of a successor of Ashoka named Kunal, who was his son from his last wife. But his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death. right The reign of Emperor Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called Prakrit. In the year 185 BC, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Mauryan ruler, Brhadrata, was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Not until some 2,000 years later under Akbar the Great and his great-grandson Aurangzeb would as large a portion of the subcontinent as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the British Empire it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the dharma wheel(The Wheel of Rightious Duty) that crowned his many columns on the flag of the newly independent state. Ashoka was ranked #53 on Michael H. Hart's list of the most influential figures in history. A semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture recently under the title Asoka.

Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship

One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Throughout Theravada Southeast Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the Brahmanist notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist sangha. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader.

Ashoka in popular culture

- Asoka is a film based on his life.
- Asoka ki chinta is a famous hindi poem by Jaishankar Prasad. The poem portrays Asoka's mindset during Kalinga War.

External links

[http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/king_asoka.pdf King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies]

Sources

Swearer, Donald. Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia. Anima Books. Chambersburg, PA. 1981. ISBN 0890120234. Category:Mauryan dynasty Category:Buddhism Ashoka Category:Theravada Buddhism ja:アショーカ王

Ashoka (disambiguation)

- Ashoka was Emperor of the Mauryan empire in the third century BC.
- Ashoka is a citizen sector organization (CSO), which is shaping the citizen sector by investing in social entrepreneurship around the world.
- Asoka is a 2001 film giving a largely fictional account of Ashoka's life story. It was directed by Santosh Sivan and stars Shahrukh Khan as Ashoka and Kareena Kapoor as Kaurwaki, a princess of Kalinga.
- The Ashoka tree is a flowering tree found in India and Sri Lanka.
- The Ashoka pillar is a pillar in the garden of Sarnath.
- Ashokan Farewell is a song by Jay Ungar.

Devanagari

Devanāgarī (देवनागरी —, pronounced as , but in English pronounced as ) (ISCII – IS13194:1991) [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf] is an abugida writing system used to write, either along with other scripts, or exclusively, several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. The transliteration used in this article follows the popular National Library at Calcutta romanization. The ITRANS [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. In ITRANS, the word Devanagari is written as "devanaagarii".

Origins

Devanagari emerged around 1200 AD out of the Siddham script, gradually replacing the earlier, closely related Sharada script (which remained in parallel use in Kashmir). Both are immediate descendants of the Gupta script, ultimately deriving from the Brāhmī script attested from the 3rd century BC; Nagari appeared in approx. the 8th century as an eastern variant of the Gupta script, contemporary to Sharada, its western variant. The descendants of Brahmi form the Brahmic family, including the alphabets employed for many other South and South-East Asian languages.

Etymology

Nāgarī is in Sanskrit the feminine of nāgara "urban(e)", an adjectival vrddhi derivative from nagara "city"; the feminine form is used because of its original application to qualify the feminine noun lipi "script" ("urban(e) script", i.e. the script of the cultured). There were several varieties in use, one of which was distinguised by affixing deva "divine, deity" to form a tatpurusha compound meaning the "divine urban(e) [script]". However, the widespread use of "Devanagari" is a relatively recent phenomenon; well into the twentieth century, and even today, simply "Nagari" was (and is) also in use for this same script. The rapid spread of the usage of "Devanagari" seems also to be connected with the almost exclusive use of this script in colonial times (particularly by European scholars) to publish works in Sanskrit (held by many to be the language of the gods), even though traditionally nearly all indigenous scripts have actually been employed for this language. This has led to the establishment of such a close connection between the script and Sanskrit that it is erroneously widely regarded as "the Sanskrit script" today. Interpreted by popular etymology to refer to a "City of the Gods", the name in certain Yogic traditions was taken to refer to the body of the individual. The philosophy behind this is that when one meditates on the specific sounds of the Devanagari alphabet, the written forms appear spontaneously in the mind.

Principles

Devanagari has 12 svara (pure sounds, or vowels) and 34 vyanjana (ornamented sounds, consonants). An akshara is formed by the combination of zero or one vyanjana and one or more svar, and represents a phonetic unit of the shabda (word). The akshara is written by applying standard diacritical modifiers to the vyanjana corresponding to the svara. An akshara is usually more basic and predictable than the syllable in English. For example, the English 'cat' (considered to have just one syllable) is written as two aksharas, the 'k-a' and the 'ta'. The svara and vyanjana are ordered and grouped logically for studying or reciting. Thus the pure sounds, 'a', 'i', 'u' and their lengthened versions ('aa', 'ii', 'uu') are followed by the combined ('ae', 'ai', 'o', 'ou'), nasal ('.m') and aspirated ('.h') forms. The vyanjana themselves are grouped into 6 groups (rows) of 5 (columns). The first five rows progress as velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and labial, corresponding to utilizing or touching the tongue to progressively outer parts of the mouth when making the sound. Additional vyanjana are technically sonorants, sibilants or widely used conjunct forms. For each row or group, the columns logically progress to softer sounds, paired with aspirated forms, ending in the nasal form for that group. Devanagari is written from left to right. In Sanskrit, words were written together without spaces, so that the top bar is unbroken, although there were some exceptions to this rule. The break of the top line primarily marks breath groups. In modern languages, word breaks are used. Languages written with Devanagari require no case distinction. The Devanagari writing system can be called an abugida, as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed with the different vowel signs. Most consonants can be joined to one or two other consonants so that the inherent vowel is suppressed. The resulting conjunct form is called a ligature. Many ligatures appear simply as two individual consonants joined together, and so are a form of ligature. Some ligatures are more elaborately formed and not as easily recognized as containing the individual consonants. When reading Sanskrit written in Devanagari, the pronunciation is completely unambiguous. Similarly, any word in Sanskrit is considered to be written only in one manner (discounting modern typesetting variations in depicting conjunct forms). However, for modern languages, certain conventions have been made (e.g. truncating the vowel form of the last consonant while speaking, even as it continues to be written in full form). There are also some modern conventions for writing English words in Devanagari. Certain Sanskrit texts and mantras are typically written with additional diacritical marks above and below the akshara to denote pitch and tempo, to ensure completely accurate reproduction of the sound.

Symbols of Devanagari

All the vowels in Devanagari are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an <aa> vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the <i> vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanagari vowel table below, the "Letter" column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the "Vowel sign with <p>" column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the <p> letter as an example, the "Unicode name" column contains the name given in the Unicode specification for the vowel, and the "IPA" column contains the International Phonetic Alphabet character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanagari character.

When no vowel is written, <a> is assumed. To specifically denote the absence of a vowel, a halant (also called virama) is used. Among these, ळ is not used in Hindi. The entire set is used in Marathi. Devanagari digits are written as follows:

Ligatures

Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. <jñ>). Consonant clusters involving <r> are treated as a special case: preceding <r-> is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following <-r> appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara.

Devanagari in Unicode

The Unicode range for Devanagari is U+0900 .. U+097F. Gray blocks indicate characters that are undefined.

Devanagari Keyboard Layouts

INSCRIPT

Unicode

Typewriter

Unicode

Software

- Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging - Macintosh
- Graphite - open source (SIL)
- Pango - open source (Gnome)
- Uniscribe - Windows
- WorldScript - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above

External links

- [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanagari]
- [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf The official Devanagri Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India.]
- [http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/column.asp?cid=305897 On history of Indian writing]

Electronic resources

- [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request for a free hindi Fonts and devanagari Tools CD from the Government of India]
- [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanagari Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanagari Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanagari Transliteration]
- [http://devanaagarii.net/ Devanagari : all about using Devanagari on computers]
- [http://www.ncst.ernet.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian National Centre for Software Technology
- [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanagari]
- [http://www.geocities.com/matthewblackwell/hindiEditor.html Devanagari editor]
- [http://devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanagari]
- [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers]
- [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanagari Script Tutor]
- [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Devanagari transliterator]
- [http://lists.sarovar.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/devanaagarii-lipi Devanagari mailing list and discussion group]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Discussion Group and email List Devanagari.] Category:Abugida writing systems Category:Alphabetic writing systems ko:데바나가리 문자 ja:デーヴァナーガリー

273 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC - 270s BC - 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 278 BC 277 BC 276 BC 275 BC 274 BC - 273 BC - 272 BC 271 BC 270 BC 269 BC 268 BC ---- Births
- Deaths
- Events
- Category:270s BC

232 BC

Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 237 BC 236 BC 235 BC 234 BC 233 BC - 232 BC - 231 BC 230 BC 229 BC 228 BC 227 BC ---- Events
- King Agron dies, and the throne of Illyria is occupied by his wife Queen Teuta (Tefta), "the Catherine the Great of Illyria", who expels the Greeks from the Albanian coast and then launches pirate ships into the Ionian Sea, preying on Roman shipping.
- In Rome, the Lex Flaminia de agro Gallico et Piceno viritim dividundo authorizes the distribution of land in Gaul to Roman colonists.
- Seleucus II Callinicus tried to regain Parthia Births
- Deaths
- Ashoka, Buddhist ruler of the Mauryan empire in India
- Cleanthes of Assos, head of the Stoic School in Athens
- Agron, the first king of Illyria (modern Albania) Category:230s BC

Afghanistan

Afghanistan(Pashtu/Dari-Persian: افغانستان, Afğānistān) is a country in Asia. It is in Central Asia, fringing upon South Asia and is sometimes allocated to one of these regions. It is also often considered part of the Middle East, due to its location on the Iranian plateau. It is bordered by Iran in the west, Pakistan in the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the easternmost part of the country. A part of the disputed Kashmir area claimed by India and Pakistan borders a small portion of the country. It has a population of 29 million people, and is one of the poorest countries in the world. Between the fall of the Taliban after the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 Loya jirga, Afghanistan was referred to by the Government of the United States as the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan. Under its new constitution the country is now officially named the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

Origin and history of the name

The region currently called Afghanistan has gone through a few name changes in its long history of 5000 years or so. One of the first ancient names, according to historians and scholars, was Ariana - the Greek pronunciation of the ancient Aryanam Vaeja or the Sanskrit "Aryavarta", Land of the Aryans. Today this Old-Persian, and Avestan expression is preserved in the name Iran and it is noted in the name of the Afghan national airline, Ariana Airlines, numerous Afghan owned companies throughout the world, Afghan sports teams, and a popular name for Afghan children, Aryan or Aryana. Many centuries later, Afghanistan evolved into part of Greater Khorasan, and hence was recognized with the name Khorasan (along with regions centered around Merv and Neishabur), which in Pahlavi means "The Eastern Land" (خاور زمین in Persian). (Dehkhoda, p8457) The current name of Afghanistan derives from the alternative name for the Pashtuns: Afghan [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_country_name_etymologies], being the founders of modern Afghanistan. There are a number of scholars who derive the tribal name Afghan from a people known in antiquity as Ashvakan (q.v.), in turn derived from ashva, "horse" (in reference to their equestrian nature). There are, however, some scholars that link the name "Afghan" to the Uzbeki version of the Turkish language (spoken in Northern Afghanistan and Uzbekistan), meaning "original". At any rate, given the fact that the Central Asians introduced the horse to the surrounding regions, including Afghanistan, there may be some validity to the claim. The remainder of the name originates from the Persian word stān (country or land). The English word Afghanland that appeared in various treaties between Pashtuns and the United Kingdom was adopted by the Afghans and became Afghanistan.

History

Main article: History of Afghanistan Afghanistan, often called the crossroads of Central Asia, has had a very turbulent history. Through the ages, the region today known as Afghanistan has been on the edge of a number of major empires, including the Persian Empire, the Mauryan Empire, the Kushan Empire, the Hindu Shahi kingdom, the British Empire and the Soviet Union, as well as the empires of Genghis Khan and Alexander the Great. The Afghanistan nation-state as it is known today came into existence in 1746 under the Durrani Empire, but control was ceded to Britain until King Amanullah acceded to the throne in 1919 (see "The Great Game"). During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the Durand Line, and would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and British India, and later the new state of Pakistan, over what came to be known as the Pashtunistan debate. The historical rulers of Afghanistan belonged to the Abdali tribe of the ethnic Afghans, whose name was changed to Durrani upon the accession of Ahmad Shah. They belonged to the Saddozay segment of the Popalzay clan, or to the Mohammadzay segment of the Barakzay clan, of the ethnic Afghans. The Mohammadzay furnished the Saddozay kings frequently with top counsellors, who served occasionally as regents, identified with the epithet Mohammadzay. Since 1900, eleven rulers have been unseated through undemocratic means: in 1919 (assassination), 1929 (abdication), 1929 (execution), 1933 (assassination), 1973 (deposition), 1978 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1987 (removal), 1992 (overthrow), 1996 (overthrow) and 2001 (overthrow). The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King Zahir Shah. However, in 1973, Zahir's brother-in-law, Sardar Mohammed Daoud launched a bloodless coup. Daoud and his entire family were murdered in 1978 when the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan launched a coup and took over the government. Opposition against, and conflict within, the series of leftist governments that followed, was considerable. In August 1978 the American government commenced funding anti-government mujahideen forces; the Soviet Union invaded on December 24, 1979. Faced with mounting international pressure and losses of approximately 15,000 Soviet soldiers as a result of mujahideen opposition trained by the United States, Pakistan, and other foreign governments, the Soviets withdrew ten years later, in 1989. For more details, see Soviet war in Afghanistan. The Soviet withdrawal was seen as a clear Russian defeat in the West, which many claim to have been the sole objective behind their backing of the mujahideen - especially the United States wanting to "revenge" Russian damages caused during and after the Vietnam war. Having concluded a 'victory' over the USSR, the West stopped paying attention to the issue of Afghanistan. As the vast majority of the elite and intellectuals had either been systematically eliminated by the communists or escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum came to existence. Fighting continued among the various mujahidin factions, eventually giving rise to a state of warlordism. The chaos and corruption involved in warlordism in turn spawned the rise of the Taliban in reaction. The most serious of this fighting occurred in 1994, when 10,000 people were killed from factions fighting in the Kabul area. Using this leadership vacuum, a few regional bedfellows like the Pakistani secret intelligence service (ISI), the regional mafia and a few Arab extremist groups that were looking for a safe operational hub joined forces and created the Taliban movement (Ahmad Rashid, 2000)[http://www.ahmedrashid.com/]. Backed by Pakistan and her strategic allies, the Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized power in 1996. The Taliban were able to capture 90% of the country, aside from Afghan Northern Alliance strongholds primarily in the northeast. The Taliban sought to impose a strict interpretation of Islamic Sharia law. The Taliban gave safe haven and assistance to individuals and organizations that engaged in terrorism, most notably Osama bin Laden's Al-Qaeda. The United States and allied military action in support of the opposition following the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks forced the group's downfall. In late 2001, major leaders from the Afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in Bonn, and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new government structure that resulted in the inauguration of Hamid Karzai as Chairman of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) on December 2001. After a nationwide Loya Jirga in 2002, Karzai was elected President. On March 3 and March 25 2002, a series of earthquakes struck Afghanistan, with a loss of thousands of homes and over 1800 lives. Over 4000 more people were injured. The earthquakes occurred at Samangan Province (March 3) and Baghlan Province (March 25). The latter was the worse of the two, and caused most of the casualties. International authorities assisted the Afghan government in dealing with the situation. As the country continues to get its feet back on the ground, as of late 2005, it was struggling against extreme poverty, severe warlordism, a battered infrastructure, a huge number of land mines and other unexploded ordinance, as well as a sizeable illegal poppy and heroin trade. It was also subject to occasionally violent political jockeying as the nation's first elections were successfully held, and occasional acts of violence from a few remaining al-Qaeda and Taliban elements and the on-going military operations to root them out. See also: Afghanistan timeline, Invasions of Afghanistan

Politics

Main article: Politics of Afghanistan Afghanistan is currently led by president Hamid Karzai, who was elected in October of 2004. Before the election, Karzai led the country after having been hand-picked by the administration of United States' President Bush to head an interim government, after the fall of the Taliban. His current cabinet includes members of the Afghan Northern Alliance, and a mix from other regional and ethnic groups formed from the transitional government by the Loya jirga (grand council). Former monarch Mohammed Zahir Shah returned to the country, but was not reinstated as king, and only exercises limited ceremonial powers. Under the Bonn Agreement the Afghan Constitution Commission was established to consult with the public and formulate a draft constitution. The meeting of a constitutional loya jirga was held in December 2003, when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature. Troops and intelligence agencies from the United States and a number of other countries are present, some to keep the peace, others assigned to hunt for remnants of the Taliban and al Qaeda. A United Nations peacekeeping force called the International Security Assistance Force has been operating in Kabul since December 2001. NATO took control of this Force on August 11, 2003. Some of the country remains under the control of warlords. [http://www.newstatesman.com/200502070006] On March 27, 2003, Afghan deputy defense minister and powerful warlord General Abdul Rashid Dostum created an office for the North Zone of Afghanistan and appointed officials to it, defying then-interim president Hamid Karzai's orders that there be no zones in Afghanistan. Eurocorps took over the responsibility for the NATO-led ISAF in Kabul August 9, 2004. National elections were held on October 9, 2004. Over 10 million Afghans were registered to vote. Most of the 17 candidates opposing Karzai boycotted the election, charging fraud; [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1354517,00.html] an independent commission found evidence of fraud, but ruled that it did not affect the outcome of the poll. Karzai won 55.4% of the vote. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3977677.stm] He was inaugurated as president on December 7. It was the country's first national election since 1969, when parliamentary elections were last held. On September 18, 2005, parliamentary elections were held. see also: List of leaders of Afghanistan, List of Afghanistan Governors

Subdivisions

Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces (velayat) which are further divided into districts. Main article: Provinces of Afghanistan Main article: Districts of Afghanistan The 34 provinces are:

Geography

Districts of Afghanistan Main article: Geography of Afghanistan Afghanistan is a mountainous country, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point, at 7485 m (24,557 ft) above sea level, is Nowshak. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to earthquakes. The major cities of Afghanistan are its capital Kabul, Herat, Jalalabad, Mazar-e Sharif and Kandahar. See also List of cities in Afghanistan, Places in Afghanistan.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Afghanistan Afghanistan is an extremely poor country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising, but most people only farm enough food to feed themselves. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998-2001. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, medical care, and other problems exacerbated by military operations and political uncertainties. Inflation remains a serious problem. Following the US-led coalition war that led to the defeat of the Taliban in November 2001, many of the country's farmers have resorted to growing cash crops for export, instead of food for the sustenance of their people. A notable example of such a crop is the opium poppy (1,300 km² in 2004 according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), the cultivation of which has largely increased during the last decade: Afghanistan has become the first illicit opium producer in the world, before Burma (Myanmar), part of the so-called "Golden Triangle). International efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 Bonn Agreement, and later addressed at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in January 2002, where $4.5 billion was collected for a trust fund to be administered by the World Bank Group. Priority areas for reconstruction include the construction of education, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links. Two-thirds of the population live on less than US$2 a day. The infant mortality rate is 166 per 1000 births.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Afghanistan The population of Afghanistan is divided into a large number of ethnic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country recently, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm] Therefore most figures are approximations only. According to the CIA World FactBook (updated on 17 May 2005), the ethnic group distribution is as follows: Pashtun 42%, Tajik 27%, Hazara 9%, Uzbek 9%, Aimak 4%, Turkmen 3%, Baloch 2%, other 4%. According to the CIA factbook, the official languages of Afghanistan are Persian (local name: Dari) 50% and Pashtu 35%. Other languages include Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai) 4%. Also a small number of ethnic minorities, primarily Sikhs and Hindus, speak Punjabi. Bilingualism is common. According to the CIA World Factbook (updated on 17 May 2005), religiously, Afghans are overwhelmingly Muslim (approximately 80% Sunni and 19% Shi'a). There are also Hindu and Sikh minorities. Afghanistan was once home to a many-centuries-old Jewish minority, numbering approximately 5,000 in 1948. Most Jewish families fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual remains today, Zablon Simintov. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html] With the fall of the Taliban a number of Sikhs have returned to the Ghazni, Nangarhar, Kandahar and Kabul Provinces of Afghanistan.

Constitution

Main article: Constitution of Afghanistan According to the 2004 constitution, Afghanistan is run by a president, who is elected by direct popular vote to a five-year term. The president may only serve two terms. A candidate for president must be at least forty years of age, a Muslim, and a citizen of Afghanistan. The country has two vice-presidents. The president serves as head of state and government, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president makes appointments for his cabinet, as well as posts in the military, police force, and provincial governerships, with the approval of parliament. The legislative body of Afghanistan is a parliament consisting of two houses: the Wolesi Jirga (House of the People) and the Meshrano Jirga (House of Elders). The Wolesi Jirga consists of up to 250 members elected to five-year terms through direct elections in proportion to the population of each province. At least two women must be elected from each province. In the Meshrano Jirga, one-third of the members are elected by provincial councils for four years, one-third are elected by district councils of each province for three years, and one-third are appointed by the president for five years, of whom half must be women. The judicial system of Afghanistan consists of the Stera Mahkama (Supreme Court), appeals courts, and lower district courts designated by law. The Stera Mahkama is made up of nine judges appointed by the president, with the approval of parliament, to a ten-year term. Judges must be at least forty years of age, not belong to a political party, and have a degree in law or Islamic jurisprudence. The Stera Mahkama can judge the constitutionality of all laws in the country.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Afghanistan Many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of Buddha in the Bamiyan Province were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Other famous sites include the cities of Herat, Ghazni and Balkh. The Minaret of Jam, in the Hari Rud valley, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The people of Afghanistan being renowned horsemen, the sport known as Buzkashi is popular there. Afghan hounds (a type of running dogs), originated in Afghanistan. Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in Afghan culture. The Persian language is regarded as one of the richest in the world. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in both Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Private poetry competitions known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often. The Afghan dialect of the Persian language Dari derives from "Farsi-e Darbari", meaning 'Persian of the royal courts'. It is regarded by scholars as the more original version of the language. Iran, having a larger population, a stronger economy and closer ties to the rest of the world has developed its language further in the course of history. Afghanistan took a more conservative approach mainly due to lack of resources. As a result, Dari has not changed much over the last few centuries. Many of the famous Persian language poets of 10th to 15th centuries stem from what is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy. Examples are Mawlvi Balkhi (Rumi), born and educated in the Balkh province in the 13th century and moved to today’s Istanbul, which was then known as the Eastern Rome), Sanaayi Ghaznavi (12th century, native of Ghazni provice), Jami Heravi (15th century, native of Jam-e-Herat in western Afghanistan), Nizam ud-Din Ali Sher Heravi Nava'i, (15th century, Heart province). Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-know in both Iran and Afghanistan includes Ustad Behtab, Khalilullah Khalili [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html], Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari ([http://www.afghanmagazine.com/jan2000/music/kharaabat/], Parwin Pazwak and others. In addition to poets, world-famous science personalities like Avicenna (Ibn Sina Balkhi) came from Afghanistan. Avicenna, who travelled to Isfahan later in life to establsh a medical school there, is known by some scholars as the "the father of modern medicine". George Sarton called Ibn Sina "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times." His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, also known as the Qanun. Avicenna's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician ([ http://www.noahgordonbooks.com/index.html ]), now published in many languages. Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nauroz-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the 20th century has been likened to Vienna during the 18th and 19th centuries. See also: Radio Kabul, music of Afghanistan, Islam in Afghanistan

Education

Main article: Education in Afghanistan In the spring of 2003, it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been seriously damaged during more than two decades of Soviet occupation and civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation. Education for boys was not a priority during the Taliban regime, and girls were banished from schools outright. In regards to the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the Save the Children aid group said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community. Up to four million Afghan children, possibly the largest number ever, are believed to have enrolled for class for the school year beginning in March of 2003. Education is available for both girls and boys. Literacy of the entire population is estimated at 36%.

References

- Griffiths, John C. 1981. Afghanistan: A History of Conflict. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0233050531.
- Levi, Peter. 1972. The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0002110423. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0672512521.
- Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0195771990.
- Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. Between Oxus and Jumna. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44.
- Wood, John. 1872. A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the "Geography of the Valley of the Oxus" by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0576033227.

External links

-
- [http://www.afgha.com Afgha.com - News, Discussions, and more about Afghanistan]
- [http://theafghanblog.blogspot.com/ The Afghan Blog]
- [http://www.afghanistan.sc/ Afghanistan Service Center with daily news]
- [http://www.aims.org.af/ Afghanistan Information Management Service] - provided by joint UN projects
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook - Afghanistan]
- [http://www.state.gov/p/sa/ci/af/ US State Department - Afghanistan] includes Background Notes, Country Study (1997), Rebuilding, USAID and NATO
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/ Open Directory Project - Afghanistan] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/regional/countries/afghanistan/ Yahoo! - Afghanistan] directory category
- [http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/afghanis.pdf 2002 UN map of Afghanistan] (PDF)
- [http://www.ArianaNet.com/ News Service latest News about Afghanistan, Discussion board]
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan] - A series of short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan
- [http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001]
- [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia (Afghanistan and Burma)]
- [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan Development Gateway's Afghanistan Reconstruction Portal]
- [http://www.afghanan.net/index.php Afghanan Dot Net]
- [http://www.AfghanMania.com Afghanistan Portal]
- [http://www.sabawoon.com Sabawoon Online]
- [http://www.afghan-web.com/index.html Afghanistan Online]
- [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/afghanis/index.html Afghanistan Portal on The Indian Analyst] Index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources
- [http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/Afghanistan.asp/ The Jews of Afghanistan]

Video

- Category:Central Asian countries Category:Landlocked countries als:Afghanistan zh-min-nan:Afghanistan ko:아프가니스탄 ms:Afghanistan ja:アフガニスタン simple:Afghanistan th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน

Bengal

:For the breed of cat, see Bengal cat; for the tiger, see Bengal Tiger; for the American football franchise, see Cincinnati Bengals Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in Bangla (Bengali), is a region in the northeast of South Asia. Today it is mainly divided between the independent country of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous state of Bengal (during local monarchial regimes and British rule) are part of the Indian states of Bihar, Tripura and Orissa.

History

The history of Bengal can be divided according to the religion of its rulers. Also see History of Bengal and Bengal Renaissance.

Early History

One of the earliest historical references to be found to date is the mention of a land named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BC. The word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd (Land with the Ganges in its heart) and believed to be referring to an area in Bengal. More concrete evidence of Bengal becoming a political entity is found in the 6th century, with the first recorded independent king of Bengal - Shashanka - reigning around 606. 606s, 11th century, Pala Empire.]] The first Buddhist Pala king of Bengal, Gopala-I came to power in 750 in Gaur by election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic event in the history of South Asia. The dynasty's most powerful kings, Dharampala (reigned 775-810) and Devapala (reigned 810-850) united Bengal and made the Pala family one of the most important dynasties in ninth-century India. Internecine strife during the reign of Narayanpala (reigned 854-908) and administrative excesses led to the decline of the dynasty. A brief revival of the kingdom under Mahipala I (reigned 977-1027) ended in battle against the powerful, South Indian Chola kingdom. The rise of the Chandra dynasty in southern Bengal expedited the decline of the Palas, and the last Pala king, Madanpala, died in 1161. The Malla dynasty emerged in Bengal in the seventh century, although they only rose to prominence in the 10th century under Jagat Malla who moved his capital to Vishnupur. Unlike the Buddhist Palas and Chandras, the Hindu Mallas worshipped first the Hindu god Shiva, then the Hindu god Vishnu. The Mallas built temples and spectacular religious monuments during their rule in Bengal. Under the Sena dynasty, which lasted from 1095 to 1260, Bengali emerged as a distinct and important language in northern India, and Hinduism began to displace older Buddhism.

Muslim Rule

The Turkic invasion of India (including Bengal) came in the early 13th century. The invaders defeated the Sena king Laxmansena at his capital, Nabadwip in 1203 (1204?) The Deva family — the last Hindu dynasty to rule in Bengal — ruled briefly in eastern Bengal, although they were suppressed by the mid-fourteenth century. During the early Muslim period, the former kingdom became known as the Sultanate of Bangala, ruled intermittently from the Sultanate of Delhi. The chaotic shifts in power between the Afghan and Turkish rulers of that sultanate came to an end when Moghul rule became established in Bengal during the sixteenth century. In 1534, the Afghan Sher Shah Suri, or Farid Khan — a man of incredible military and political skill — succeeded in defeating the superior forces of the Mughals under Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540). Sher Shah fought back and captured both Delhi and Agra as he established the most powerful Bengali kingdom that would ever exist, stretching far into Panjab. Sher Shah's administrative skill showed in his public works, including the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon in Bengal with Peshawar in the Hindu Kush. Sher Shah's rule ended with his death in 1545, although even in those five years his reign would have a powerful influence on Indian society, politics, and economics. Shah Suri's successors lacked his administrative skill, and quarrelled over the domains of his empire. Humayun, who then ruled a rump Mughal state, saw an opportunity and in 1554 seized Lahore and Delhi. Humayun's death in 1556 led to the accession of Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal emperors, who defeated the Karani rulers of Bengal in 1576 and ruled through governors. Akbar exercised progressive rule and oversaw a period of prosperity (through trade and development) in Bengal and northern India. Bengal's trade and wealth so impressed the Moghuls that they called the region the "Paradise of the Nations". Administration by governors appointed by the court of the Mughal Empire court (1575-1717) gave way to four decades of semi-independence under the Nawabs of Murshidabad, who respected the nominal sovereignty of the Mughals in Delhi. The Nawabs granted permission to the French East India Company to establish a trading post at Chandernagore in 1673, and the British East India Company at Calcutta in 1690. When the British East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab, Siraj Ud Daulah, at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the leadership of Robert Clive, British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March 1757 and seriously defeated the Nawab on June 23 1757 at the Battle of Plassey, when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their own Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in 1763. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in 1765 in alliance with the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, but were defeated again at the Battle of Buxar (1765). The center of northern Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to Calcutta when the Mughal Empire fell.

British Rule

Scarcely five years into the Company's rule, the catastrophic Bengal_famine_of_1770, one of the greatest famines of history occurred. Up to a third of the population died in 1770 and subsequent years. The Indian Mutiny of 1857 replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the British crown. A centre of rice cultivation as well as fine cotton called muslin and the world's main source of jute fibre, Bengal, from the 1850s became one of India's principal centres of industry, concentrated in the capital Kolkata (known as Calcutta under the British, always called 'Kolkata' in the native tongue of Bengali) and its emerging cluster of suburbs. Most of the population nevertheless remained dependent on agriculture, and despite its leading role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts, especially in the east. In 1877, when Victoria took the title of "Empress of India", the British declared Calcutta the capital of the British Raj. India's most populous province (and one of the most active provinces in freedom fighting), in 1905 Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes into an overwhelmingly Hindu west (including present-day Bihar and Orissa) and a predominantly Muslim east (including Assam) (1905 Partition of Bengal). Hindu - Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagred with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported it by saying it wass a big step forward for muslim society where muslims will be majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture. But under strong hindu violent agitation , the British reunited east and west Bengal in 1912, and made Bihar and Orissa a separate province.

Independence

As partition of British India into Hindu and Muslim dominions approached in 1947, Bengal again split into the Hindu state of West Bengal and a Muslim region of East Bengal under Pakistan (later renamed East Pakistan in 1958 and 0n 1971 as independent Bangladesh)( 1947 Partition of Bengal). East Pakistan (East Bengal) later rebelled against Pakistani military rule to become independent republic of Bangladesh, literally "Land of Bengal", after a war of independence against the Pakistani army in 1971. The western part of Bengal, now the state of West Bengal, remains a part of India. However, culturally and sociologically, the two segments of Bengal share considerably more than just a single language. Bengal experienced two devastating famines costing millions of lives in 1770 and 1943. However, the people of Bengal have been able to overcome such disasters and, some would say, rebuild their land in the fashion the Nobel Laureate Bengali poet Tagore described as "Golden Bengal". Bengal (both W.Bengal and Bangladesh) is among the most densely populated regions of the world.

Rulers of Bengal

Pala Dynasty

- Gopala I c. 750-c. 770
- Dharmapala c. 770-c. 810
- Devapala c. 810-c. 850
- Vigrahapala I c. 850-c. 875
- Narayanapala c. 875-c. 908
- Rajyapala c. 908-c. 935
- Gopala II c. 935-c. 952
- Vigrahapala II c. 952-c. 988
- Mahipala I c. 988-c. 1038
- Nayapala c. 1038-c. 1055
- Vigrahapala III c. 1055-c. 1070
- Mahipala II c. 1070-c. 1075
- Shurapala c. 1075-c. 1077
- Ramapala c. 1077-c. 1120
- Kumarapala c. 1120-c. 1125
- Gopala III c. 1125-c. 1144
- Madanapala c. 1144-c. 1161

Sena Dynasty

- Ballalasena c. 1161-c. 1178
- Lakhsmanasena c. 1178-c. 1205
- Vishvarupasena c. 1205-c. 1220
- Keshavarsena c. 1220-c. 1250

Ilyas Dynasty

- Bughra Khan 1282-1291
- Kai Ka'us 1291-1298
- Firuz Shah I 1298-1318
- Bughra 1318-1319 (in West Bengal)
- Bahadur 1318-1330 (in East Bengal,in West Bengal 1319-1323)
- Ibrahim 1323-1325 (in West Bengal)
- Azam ul-Mulk 1323-1339 (in Satgaon)
- Bahram Shah 1324-1336 (in East Bengal)
- Qadr Khan 1325-1339 (in West Bengal)
- Mubarrak Shah 1336-1349 (in East Bengal)
- Ali Shah 1339-1345 (in West Bengal)
- Ilyas Shah 1345-1357 (in West Bengal, in whole Bengal from 1352)
- Ghazi Shah 1349-1352 (in East Bengal)
- Sikandar I 1357-1390
- Azam 1369-1410 - opponent of Sikandar I
- Hamza 1410-1412
- Bayazid I 1412-1414
- Firuz II 1414-1415

Ganesa Dynasty

- Raja Ganesh 1415-1418
- Mohammed 1418-1431
- Ahmad 1431-1436

Ilyas Dynasty

- Mahmud I 1437-1459
- Barbak I 1459-1474
- Yusuf 1474-1481
- Sikandar II 1481
- Fath Shah 1481-1486

Habshis Dynasty

- Barbak II 1486-1487
- Firuz III 1487-1489
- Mahmud II 1489-1490
- Muzaffar 1490-1494

Husaini Dynasty

- Aladdin Husain 1494-1518
- Nusrat 1518-1533
- Firuz IV 1533
- Mahmud III 1533-1538

Suri Dynasty

- Sher Shah 1539-1540
- Khidr 1540-1545
- Mohammed Khan 1545-1555
- Bahadur 1555-1561
- Jalal 1561-1564

Karani (Kararani) Dynasty

- Sulaiman 1564-1572
- Bayazid II 1572
- Daoud 1572-1576

Nawabs of Bengal

- Murshid Quli Djafar Khan 1703-1727
- Shoja ud-Din 1727-1739
- Safaraz Khan 1739-1740
- Ali Vardi Khan 1740-1756
- Siraj Ud Daulah 1756-1757
- Mir Djafar 1757-1760
- Mir Qasim 1760-1763
- Mir Djafar (2nd time) 1763-1765
- Najm ud-Dawlah 1765-1766
- Saif ud-Dawlah 1766-1770

Maps during British rule on external sites

Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at University of Texas Libraries
- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/india_shepherd_1923.jpg India 1700-1792 from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923]
- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india1760_1905.jpg India 1760 from The Public Schools Historical Atlas edited by C. Colbeck. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905]
- [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india_1882.jpg India 1882 from A Dictionary Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce and Commercial Navigation by J.R. M'Culloch. Longmans, Green and Co. London, 1882]

External links

- [http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Bengal List of rulers of Bengal]
- [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2005/07/04/initiation-for-the-probasi/ Initiation for the Probasi] Category:Geography of Bangladesh Category:History of Bangladesh Category:Bengal Category:Geography of India Category:History of India

Mysore

:This article is about Mysore City. For information about Mysore District and Division, see Mysore District. Mysore is the second largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. Mysore is the administrative seat of Mysore District and Mysore Division, and is the former capital of the Kingdom of Mysore. Mysore is known as the Cultural Capital of Karnataka. Mysore is located at 770 m above sea level and 135 km from Bangalore at . Mysore is known for its palaces and proximity to several attractions. One of the best (some would say worst) times to visit Mysore is during the annual nine-night, ten-day Dussera or Dasara or Navaratri festival, which usually occurs in early October.

Origin of name

Navaratri]] According to Hindu legend, the area around Mysore city was once the domain of the demon king Mahishasura (Mahisha meaning Buffalo), who grew almost invincible and wreaked havoc on the world. The Goddess Chamundeshwari, vanquished the demon Mahisha in a humungous struggle waged over a period of 10 days thus, Goddess Chamundeshwari is also known by the name Mahisha Mardhini (slayer of Mahisha).The battle became a festive event which the annual 10-day Navaratri festival commemorates to this day. The region retains the name of the slain demon; the name Mysore is the anglicized version of Mahisuru which is derived from the words "Mahisha" (the demon) + "Ooru" (town). Thus "Mahisha + Ooru = Mahishuru", the "Abode of Mahisha" which word became, with repeated usage, "Mysooru" in Indian languages, and was later anglicized to "Mysore". This legend is among the one of the most important in Hindu mythology, and renders the temple of the Goddess Chamundeshwari, located atop Chamundi hills in Mysore, an important place of pilgrimage. The legend is commemorated by several monuments in Mysore, including the temple of Goddess Chamundeshwari on Chamundi Hills and an imposing statue of Mahishasura located nearby.

History

The history of Mysore has been closely linked with the history of the Kingdom of Mysore. References from the times of Mahabharata and Asoka refer to Mahisha Nadu or Mahisha Mandala. References can also be found in Tamil literature about Ezimahi Nadu. Earliest documentary evidence is linked to stone carvings (Saasanas) found in villages around Mysore, inscribed around 1021. From 1499 the name of Mysore has been clearly recorded in inscriptions. Till the year 1610, when Srirangapatna was acquired, Mysore was the center of administration. It became the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore after the death of Tippu Sultan in 1799 . The administrative center was shifted to Bangalore in 1831, as the British took over the administration of the Kingdom of Mysore. Mysore once again became the capital of the kingdom in 1881 with the rendition of power by the British to the Wodeyars. Most present day historical landmarks, and organisation of the city of Mysore were inspirations of the Wodeyar kings and their Dewans. Plans for organised development of the city exist as far back as 1904. Several structures were built around late 1800's and early 1900.

Attractions

Palaces

Wodeyar Mysore is called the City of Palaces as a result of the number of palaces situated in the city, some of them are: The original main palace of Mysore was burnt down in 1897 and the present day structure was built over the same site. The present day Palace exibhits a mixture of architectural styles from Dravidian, Indo-Saracenic, Roman and Oriental. Even though the Government of Karnataka now maintains the Mysore palace, a small portion of the palace has been allocated for the erstwhile Royal family to live in. The Jayalaxhmi Vilas Mansion, was constructed by Sri Chamaraja Wodeyar for his daughter Jayalakshammanni. The Jayalaxhmi Vilas is now a museum dedicated to folk culture. A new gallery is being added for artefacts and collections of the Wodeyars of Mysore.

Mysore Dasara

Dasara is the Nadahabba (state festival) of Karnataka State and Mysore is well known for the festivities that take place during the Dasara period. Also termed as Navaratri (meaning nine-nights), it is a 10-day festival usually held during the months of Sep-Oct. During this period, various cultural and religious programs highlighting the dance, music and culture of the state of Karnataka are held. Even musicians and dancers from out of State are invited to give performances. Mysore Palace is illuminated on all the 10 days and prominent cultural programs are held in the grounds surrounding the palace. The festivities are started with a pooja performed to the Goddess Chamundeshwari atop the Chamundi Hills in the presence of the Wodeyar royal couple, high ranking officials in the Karnataka State Governement and other invitees. When Mysore was ruled by the Wodeyars, it was a practice for the King to give a special audience to the people during the Dasara which was popularly termed as Dasara durbar. This Durbar was participated by dignitaries and was a very disciplined and orderly affair. The current scion of the Wodeyar family now holds a private Durbar. One of the main attractions of the festival is the Dasara exhibition which starts during the Dasara and continues for around 2 months. It is held in Doddakere Maidan (grounds opposite to the Mysore Palace) and contains stalls selling articles like clothing, plastic and glass ware, food stalls, stalls highlighting the various departments of Karnataka Government and also a play area where people can participate in games and amusement rides. Another attraction is the wrestling tournament which is held in the Devraj Urs stadium adjoining the Dasara exhibition grounds. It is participated by wrestlers from around India and attracts a sizeable audience. The conclusion of the festivties is marked by a colourful Dasara procession (popularly known as Jamboo Savari). The main attraction of the procession is the idol of Goddess Chamundeshwari which is carried in a Golden howdah on top of an elephant. Various tableaux created by different state organisations participate in the procession. Musical bands belonging to State Police lend music to the procession. The final program culminating the Dasara festivities is the torch light parade (also known as Panjina Kavayatthu) held during the evening and night in the Bannimantap grounds at the outskirts of the city. It is followed by a dazzling display of fireworks. A Laser show has been added recently to the program. Additional buses and trains are organised from Bangalore to Mysore during the Dasara Period. State Government buses (KSRTC) buses charge a premium for the journey during this period.

Other attractions

Dasara

Governance

The city is governed by the Mysore City Corporation (forming the legislative branch), lead by a Mayor, and composed of 64 elected corporators. The city is divided into wards from which corporators are elected. Officials such as the District Commissioner, Health Officer, Officers in charge of the Water Works, Sewage form parts of the executive branch. MUDA (Mysore Urban Development Authority) is responsible for creation of new sections (layouts), zoning and expansion of the city. The Mysore Zilla Parishat is responsible for the rural sections of the taluk. Mysore has become the first Indian city to be Wi-Fi enabled, according to the Indian newspaper [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1202647.cms The Times of India](16th August 2005).

Demographics

While the population of the city is diverse